The Deaf Bilingualism and Biculturalism: Formulating Definition, Approaches, and Language Policy paper was presented by Marlon H. Kuntze, Bilingual Bicultural Coordinator (Calif. School for the Deaf, Fremont), at the Round Table discussion during the Fourth International Conference on the Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research, August 7, 1992.

   Biological/Functional Basis of Deaf Bilingualism

   ASL and English-in-print constitute Deaf bilingualism.  Both languages are in a form that is visually-based; hence they are biologically accessible. Each language serves a specific
function in everyday life. A Deaf person switches between both languages constantly depending on which language will function better in a given situation.  Both languages are
indispensable to optimal living here in America for a Deaf person.

   ASL is the language of choice for communication in a situation where both parties are bilingual.  ASL, not English-in-print, functions within the matrix of human language.  However, Deaf people constantly face situations where English-in-print is the only choice for a successful communicative transaction such as communicating with non-signing hearing people, conversing on a TTY, or writing a letter.  Moreover, there is a wealth of knowledge and information accessible only through print.  All of us who enjoy reading, at some time, read for the sheer pleasure of reading itself.  The various colors of English, as found in
print, are an important dimension that complements a literate person's experience.


   Unlike any other bilingualism, Deaf bilingualism entails that only ASL has the necessary features to serve as the first language to acquire.  Only ASL is in a form that is naturally occurring.  Although English-in-print, from a Deaf perspective, is a language in its own right, it nevertheless was formed as a visual code for a language that, in its natural form, is auditory-based.  The naturalness of ASL is a language and the fact that it shares the
universal characteristics of human language are what make ASL appropriate, and hence the only choice, as the first language to acquire.  It has elements that will trigger natural
language development.

    Moreover, I have a theory about a feature of ASL that probably plays a role in laying the foundation for the acquisition of English-in-print.  I believe that there are various elements in ASL that are readily transferable in developing second language (L2) skills.

    Undoubtedly, in the course of ASL's evolution in an environment that is full of English-in-print, some English "elements" have been absorbed and worked themselves into ASL vocabulary and grammar.  The extent of English absorption has conceivably been determined by constraints in ASL such as what is grammatically acceptable in a "visual" language.  Some examples of English elements in ASL are: fingerspelling words, mouthing
certain words, and using certain phrases and idiomatic expressions.  Some of ASL's syntactic constructions happen to be comparable to English.  However, it does not mean that there is not much difference between ASL and English-in-print.  There are
more differences than similarities between the two languages.  According to the theory, the more competent a deaf child is in ASL, the more English-comparable elements he has in his repertoire that will be called into play when the child is exposed to English-in-print. We need to learn more about how ASL competent children acquire English-in-print.  What
characteristics of ASL serve as a natural bridge to the development of a second language?  We need to also identify other factors that contribute to English acquisition.

     Biculturalism: Further Insight on its Definition

               From a Deaf Perspective

     Being culturally Deaf is a way of life that is naturally  determined by living in an environment that is governed by  experiences that are predominantly visually-oriented. It is the  collective experience and shared knowledge of the best possible way of Living as a Deaf person.  The natural process of  developing cultural identity comes from growing up among Deaf people in an environment where one sees oneself as a  thread that is women into the large fabric of collective Deaf  experience.

     Before one can really embark on becoming maximally bicultural, one has to develop culturally at the nucleus of one's self as a Deaf person which is an affirmation of self-identity.   To complete the process of becoming bicultural is to achieve a clear inward view of one's self as a Deaf individual and as a member of the Deaf community as well as to have a clear outward view of the hearing worLd and how one fits into it.

       The goal of biculturalism is to achieve a satisfactory  interface with the hearing world. The stronger one is as a Deaf  person, the more satisfactory the interface would be. Similar  to the process of becoming culturally Deaf, the process of  becoming culturally aware of the hearing world should be effected in a natural way. The element of naturalness will come if an opportunity is provided for a gradual transition to achieve a maximum comfort-level for interface. Several possibilities exist that may support such a transition. There are ASL-using hearing children of Deaf parents whom deaf children_historically have had minimal contact with.  They may be the most natural "first hearing contact" because, with them.  communication can be unrestricted and free-flowing. Also, there are a growing number of hearing children learning ASL as a second language. That should be encouraged, because they could be a good next step in the hearing contact. Theoretically. we can fabricate different levels of deaf-hearing contact until deaf children develop a facility and become bicultural enough to interface with any hearing person.

     The term biculturalism also applies to hearing people who want to achieve satisfactory interface with Deaf people.  It entails developing an understanding of a Deaf perspective.  Our present challenge is to create opportunities that will afford hearing people an opportunity to develop such an understanding.  Moreover, we need to learn more about the "Deaf perspective" that hearing people need to learn about and understand.  The successful hearing biculturals are those who are able to communicate with Deaf people the Deaf way and to contribute and work in a way that is in harmony with  Deaf values.
               
     To grow in a bicultural co-existence, Deaf and hearing people need to work together to minimize the potential of cross-cultural conflicts and to be able to resolve arising conflicts through cultural mediation and dialogue.

         ASL and Deaf Environment: A Need for Access

     A big problem in ensuring that deaf children develop well- rounded bilingual and bicultural skills is the Limited access to an ASL-using environment. If we are willing, it is possible to create such access.  We need to look at the Deaf community, which is a source of ASL and Deaf knowledge, and to recognize this community as a resource that has been minimally tapped by the educational establishment.

     A probable explanation as to why the Deaf community has not been taken seriously as a possible resource is because of a perpetuating pathological perspective in which being deaf is seen as a deficit.  Feelings of suspicion or fear of deaf people typically have been aroused in uninitiated hearing people when put in a situation with deaf people.  They see deaf people as an almost non-human entity rather than as human beings.  They see deaf people as hearing people who do not hear rather than as human beings who, although similar to them in many ways, lead an unique existence. 

      The empowerment of Deaf people as well as the promotion of a desirable image of the Deaf community will help achieve the goal of having the Deaf community play a pivotal role in the lives of deaf children.  The presence and support of Deaf community is necessary when the deaf child and his hearing family navigate the referral process after diagnosis.

      Each family with a deaf child needs the exposure to and the experience of interacting with Deaf adults. On a formal level, a plan needs to be devised that will involve a Deaf adult working with the family in developing communication with their deaf child in a natural way, given the family circumstances.  Discovering that their child is deaf may have the unintended effect of minimizing the "communication contact" between the parents and child.  However, if the family is helped to develop communication with the child that is gestural or mimetic in form, it may be the best way for the parents to resume communication contact and to continue the bond that was there with the child before the diagnosis was made of the child being deaf.  It will also ensure that meaningful communication takes place in as short a time as possible.  This type of communication is important as it lays the groundwork for the long term goal of the family
developing ASL skills.


     Communication, however much it is happening at home, is not going to be enough for the child's language development and enculturation.  Having a Deaf adult helping the family at home in their communicative transition to that which is visually-based is an important first step.  However, the best situation for ensuring optimal language development would be to provide the child access to an ASL-using environment.  It can be created by setting up a facility where young deaf children are brought together for immersion in ASL with peer and Deaf adults as language models.  In reference to the aforementioned discussion on biculturalism, such a facility could possibly also serve hearing children of Deaf parents.  Most Deaf parents have hearing children and most deaf children have hearing parents.  Bringing these two groups of children together would have the advantage of increasing the pool of ASL competent peer models and promoting biculturalism.

                  Language Policy

     A strong case exists for giving young deaf children an opportunity to acquire ASL as their first language and, in the process, becoming linguistically competent to acquire English-in-print as a second language.  The naturalness of acquiring each language and the identification of the functional reasons why Deaf people need both languages are the blueprint for how a deaf child is to acquire each language. Given an opportunity for exposure and real life use of both languages, it is within the reach of any deaf child to develop strong bilingual skills.  They should have an opportunity to develop oral English skills as an additional skill; however, it is to be on an individual basis.

  Progress in acquiring ASL literacy is an important contributing factor in developing English literacy. We are still in the  early stages of knowing what activities contribute to the development of ASL literacy.  The term literacy should be viewed in a much broader context.  It is the acquisition of world knowledge and the ability to make sense out of what is encountered.  In that respect, we should recognize and better understand the significance of having access to ASL and using it to promote literacy development.

   Children need both formal and informal contexts for the development of ASL skills.  Language development during the preschool years should take place predominantly during social contact with others. The more we learn about the linguistic environments of children with Deaf parents, the better we will understand how children acquire ASL as well as the rudiments of English-in-print.  The way that different families have been structuring the linguistic environment may have been based largely on intuition and the extent of their desire to promote linguistic development in their child. This kind of information should be collected and then shared with both deaf and hearing parents so that they can foster optimal language development in their children.


  Once in school, children will benefit from a strong language arts program in ASL through all grades in addition to a program in English that is designed from a perspective of second language acquisition.  The ASL language program will not only contribute to language development but also help push children's literary skills in ASL to new heights.  A stronger base in L1 will help enhance the process of L2 acquisition.  We need to determine what there is to know about ASL before a comprehensive curriculum can be instituted.  The assumption behind such a curriculum is that children come to school already competent in ASL.  Of course, we will always have students who, for one reason or another, don't have an opportunity for early ASL development.  They probably will need a different curriculum before they can be brought into the curriculum designed for ASL competent children.

   Schools should have a clear position on the level of ASL skills required for the staff.  This should go hand in hand with the administration's position to invest heavily in upgrading the existing skill levels.  Schools should also take a proactive position by sending a clear message to teacher training programs in terms of what is an acceptable level of ASL for new applicants and prospective student interns.  We should not be stuck in the position of always upgrading staff ASL skills; it should be limited to existing staff only.  Once and for all, we should put a high premium on ASL competency among staff and not hold the scope and depth of students' learning hostage to the inadequate signing level of staff members.

                  In Closing

   The achievement levels of deaf students are synonymous with the extent to which ASL has been oppressed.  The fact that it is an oppressed language has spawned feelings of ambivalence among Deaf people about ASL. Thus, the Deaf community is impotent and unable to see with necessary clarity the legitimacy of ASL and its rightful place in the educational and Linguistic development of deaf children. We owe it to Deaf people to give them the opportunity to learn more about their language.  That will empower them.  Once empowered, they will be more useful as a resource.  The effort to recognize and legitimatize the use of ASL goes hand in hand with empowerment of Deaf people.  Only then will we be able to begin the Liberation and empowerment of deaf students. Maximum access to ASL will not take place until we have Deaf adults who fully appreciate their heritage and wish to pass it on to the children so that the language may flourish and take a strong hold in our society and in educational institutions.